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Seventh edition
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Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition
Paul Chance
Publisher: Jon-David Hague
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iii
Brief Contents
Preface xiv
Note to the Student: How to Get the Most from this Book xviii
chapter 1 Introduction: Learning to Change 1
chapter 2 The Study of Learning and Behavior 34
chapter 3 Pavlovian Conditioning 56
chapter 4 Pavlovian Applications 95
chapter 5 Operant Learning: Reinforcement 126
chapter 6 Reinforcement: Beyond Habit 168
chapter 7 Schedules of Reinforcement 193
chapter 8 Operant Learning: Punishment 230
chapter 9 Operant Applications 254
chapter 10 Observational Learning 279
chapter 11 Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control 313
chapter 12 Forgetting 345
chapter 13 The Limits of Learning 376
Glossary 393
References 400
Author Index 434
Subject Index 442
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iv
Preface xiv
Note to the Student: How to Get the Most from this Book xviii
chapter 1 Introduction: Learning to Change 1
Preview 1
The Constancy of Change 2
Natural Selection 4
Evolved Behavior 11
Reflexes 11
Modal Action Patterns 13
General Behavior Traits 16
Limits of Natural Selection 19
Learning: Evolved Modifiability 21
Learning Means Change 21
What Changes Is Behavior 22
What Changes Behavior Is Experience 24
Habituation: An Example of Learning 26
Nature vs. Nurture 27
A Final Word 30
Recommended Reading 31
Review Questions 32
Practice Quiz 32
Query Answers 33
Contents
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chapter 2 The Study of Learning and Behavior 34
Preview 34
The Natural Science Approach 35
Measures of Learning 36
Sources of Data 42
Anecdotes 42
Case Studies 43
Descriptive Studies 44
Experimental Studies 44
Limitations of Experiments 48
Animal Research and Human Learning 49
A Final Word 53
Recommended Reading 53
Review Questions 54
Practice Quiz 54
Query Answers 55
chapter 3 Pavlovian Conditioning 56
Preview 56
Beginnings 57
■ Ivan Pavlov: An Experimenter from Head to Foot 58
Basic Procedures 59
■ What’s What in Pavlovian Conditioning? 62
Higher-Order Conditioning 63
Measuring Pavlovian Learning 65
Variables Affecting Pavlovian Conditioning 66
How the CS and US Are Paired 66
CS–US Contingency 69
CS–US Contiguity 69
■ Pavlovian Flowchart 70
Stimulus Features 72
Prior Experience with CS and US 73
Number of CS–US Pairings 75
Contents v
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Intertrial Interval 76
Other Variables 76
Extinction of Conditional Responses 78
Theories of Conditioning 81
Stimulus Substitution Theory 81
Preparatory Response Theory 84
Compensatory Response Theory 85
■ Conditional Awareness 86
Rescorla-Wagner Model 87
Other CS Theories 90
A Final Word 91
Recommended Reading 92
Review Questions 92
Practice Quiz 93
Query Answers 94
chapter 4 Pavlovian Applications 95
Preview 95
Fear 96
■ Fear of Public Speaking 98
Prejudice 102
The Paraphilias 104
■ The Boy Next Door 105
■ Who Are the Victims? 108
Taste Aversion 108
Advertising 111
■ Nature’s Weed Whackers 112
Drug Addiction 115
Health Care 120
A Final Word 122
Recommended Reading 123
Review Questions 123
Practice Quiz 124
Query Answers 125
vi Contents
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chapter 5 Operant Learning: Reinforcement 126
Preview 126
Beginnings 127
■ E. L. Thorndike: What the Occasion Demanded 129
Types of Operant Learning 131
■ B. F. Skinner: The Darwin of Behavior Science 136
Kinds of Reinforcers 138
Primary and Secondary 138
Natural and Contrived 140
■ Operant and Pavlovian Learning Compared 141
Variables Affecting Operant Learning 142
Contingency 142
Contiguity 144
Reinforcer Characteristics 146
Behavior Characteristics 147
Motivating Operations 148
Other Variables 150
Neuromechanics of Reinforcement 150
Theories of Positive Reinforcement 153
Hull’s Drive-Reduction Theory 154
Relative Value Theory and the Premack Principle 155
Response-Deprivation Theory 157
Theories of Avoidance 159
Two-Process Theory 159
One-Process Theory 163
A Final Word 163
Recommended Reading 164
Review Questions 165
Practice Quiz 166
Query Answers 166
Contents vii
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chapter 6 Reinforcement: Beyond Habit 168
Preview 168
Shaping New Behavior 169
■ The Shaping of Shaping 170
■ Tips for Shapers 172
Chaining 173
Insightful Problem Solving 176
Creativity 180
Superstition 184
■ Quick! Get Some Mud! 187
Helplessness 187
A Final Word 189
Recommended Reading 190
Review Questions 190
Practice Quiz 191
Query Answers 192
chapter 7 Schedules of Reinforcement 193
Preview 193
Beginnings 194
Simple Schedules 195
Continuous Reinforcement 195
Fixed Ratio 195
Variable Ratio 198
■ Life Is a Gamble 199
■ VR Harassment 200
Fixed Interval 200
Variable Interval 203
Extinction 204
Other Simple Schedules 208
Stretching the Ratio 210
Compound Schedules 212
viii Contents
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The Partial Reinforcement Effect 214
Discrimination Hypothesis 216
Frustration Hypothesis 217
Sequential Hypothesis 217
Response Unit Hypothesis 218
Choice and the Matching Law 220
■ Ghetto Choice 225
A Final Word 225
Recommended Reading 226
Review Questions 227
Practice Quiz 228
Query Answers 228
chapter 8 Operant Learning: Punishment 230
Preview 230
Beginnings 231
Types of Punishment 231
■ Aversive Confusion: Positive Punishment and Negative Reinforcement 233
Variables Affecting Punishment 234
Contingency 234
Contiguity 235
■ Texting While Driving—Punishable by Death 236
Punisher Intensity 238
Introductory Level of Punisher 239
Reinforcement of the Punished Behavior 240
Alternative Sources of Reinforcement 240
Motivating Operations 241
Other Variables 242
Theories of Punishment 243
Two-Process Theory 243
One-Process Theory 244
Problems with Punishment 245
Alternatives to Punishment 248
A Final Word 250
Contents ix
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Recommended Reading 251
Review Questions 251
Practice Quiz 252
Query Answers 253
chapter 9 Operant Applications 254
Preview 254
Home 255
School 257
Clinic 263
Self-Injurious Behavior 263
Delusions 266
Paralysis 269
■ Operant Medical Assessment 270
Work 271
Zoo 273
A Final Word 275
■ Reinforcement Goes to the Dogs 276
Recommended Reading 276
Review Questions 277
Practice Quiz 278
Query Answers 278
chapter 10 Observational Learning 279
Preview 279
Beginnings 280
Types of Observational Learning 281
Social Observational Learning 281
Asocial Observational Learning 286
■ Vicarious Pavlovian Conditioning? 286
Imitation 289
x Contents
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Variables Affecting Observational Learning 292
Difficulty of the Task 292
Skilled vs. Unskilled Model 293
Characteristics of the Model 294
Characteristics of the Observer 296
Consequences of Observed Acts 297
Consequences of the Observer’s Behavior 298
■ Observational Learning and Human Nature 298
■ Cross-Species Observational Learning 299
Theories of Observational Learning 299
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 299
Operant Learning Model 301
Applications of Observational Learning 303
Education 303
Social Change 305
■ The Down Side of Observational Learning 309
A Final Word 310
Recommended Reading 310
Review Questions 311
Practice Quiz 311
Query Answers 312
chapter 11 Generalization, Discrimination,
and Stimulus Control 313
Preview 313
Beginnings 314
Generalization 314
■ Generalized Therapy 320
Discrimination 320
Stimulus Control 328
Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus
Control in the Analysis of Behavior 329
Mental Rotation as Generalization 329
Concept Formation as Discrimination Learning 331
Smoking Relapse as Stimulus Control 334
Contents xi
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Theories of Generalization and Discrimination 336
Pavlov’s Theory 336
Spence’s Theory 337
The Lashley-Wade Theory 338
A Final Word 341
Recommended Reading 342
Review Questions 342
Practice Quiz 343
Query Answers 344
chapter 12 Forgetting 345
Preview 345
Beginnings 346
Defining Forgetting 346
■ Learning for the Future 347
■ A Taxonomy of Knowledge 349
Measuring Forgetting 350
Sources of Forgetting 353
Degree of Learning 354
Prior Learning 356
■ The Man Who Couldn’t Forget 356
Subsequent Learning 359
Changes in Context 361
■ The State of Learning 364
Applications 365
Eyewitness Testimony 365
Learning to Remember 366
■ Say All Fast Minute Each Day Shuffle 371
A Final Word 372
Recommended Reading 373
Review Questions 374
Practice Quiz 375
Query Answers 375
xii Contents
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chapter 13 The Limits of Learning 376
Preview 376
Physical Characteristics 377
Nonheritability of Learned Behavior 378
Heredity and Learning Ability 379
■ Recipe for Genius 381
Neurological Damage and Learning 382
Critical Periods 383
Preparedness and Learning 385
■ Learning and Humanity 389
The Last Final Word 390
Recommended Reading 390
Review Questions 391
Practice Quiz 391
Query Answers 392
Glossary 393
References 400
Author Index 434
Subject Index 442
Contents xiii
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xiv
Preface
A textbook is like a city: It is never finished. Go into any city and you see
old buildings being torn down and new ones being built, trees being planted
in vacant lots, jackhammers tearing up streets to install phone lines under-
ground. The same is true of textbooks: Some topics are dropped, new ones
added, chapters or sections moved from here to there. Here are some of the
changes you’ll see in Learning and Behavior, 7th edition:
• Updated content. The reference list includes over 100 items dated
2011 or later.
• New topics, including evaluative conditioning, asocial observational
learning, computer-based VRET, progressive schedules, and con-
straint-induced movement therapy, among others.
• More studies are cited to document findings, especially those that are
counterintuitive or controversial, such as that learning sometimes oc-
curs without awareness of the contingencies involved.
• New applications, including the use of Pavlovian and operant
procedures for diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of medical
disorders.
• The Miller–Dollard theory of observational learning has been replaced
with a generic operant learning model.
• Increased emphasis on the role of context in forgetting, and the idea
that forgetting may be largely a matter of stimulus control, a view
taken by increasing numbers of psychologists.
• Footnotes are replaced by
ief marginal notes that students are more
likely to read.
• An increased emphasis in the recommended reading lists on items
students are likely to read, such as Hal Markowitz’s Enriching Animal
Lives, Susan Schneider’s The Science of Consequences, and articles in
The New Yorker and other popular periodicals.
• An increase in the number and variety of illustrations, including pho-
tographs and sketches.
• Increased coverage of research by evolutionary biologists, prima-
tologists, ethologists, rehabilitation psychologists, developmental
psychologists, and cognitive psychologists.
32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd XXXXXXXXXX/01/13 8:11 PM
• An increase in coverage of research done outside the United States.
• Researcher affiliations are sometimes provided, mostly involving
recent studies, to convey to students that not all noteworthy learning
esearch comes out of Ivy League schools.
• A
ief section near the end of each chapter called “A Final Word.” My
hope is that these will prompt the students to think about and discuss
the implications of their reading.
• To make room for new material, I have deleted the workbook ( students
will find a study guide online); reduced chapter review questions
from 20 to 10; shortened the discussion of memory; removed Edwin
Twitmyer, the discussion of semantic conditioning, self-control,
self-awareness, and mnemonic systems. Some of this material will be
available on the book’s website.
Although cities are constantly being “revised,” some things remain the
same for decades. The same is true of texts. The following key features of
Learning and Behavior remain essentially unchanged:
• A readable style and a cordial tone that help make reading the text
a welcome activity rather than a tedious chore, so that students get
more out of their class sessions.
• Certain themes continue to run through the text: that learning is a
iological mechanism (I call it evolved modifiability) by which indi-
viduals cope with change; that changes in behavior are the products
of biological and environmental events; and that the natural science
approach is the best way to study behavior.
• An abundance of examples and applications to help students “get” the
principles, not merely memorize them.
• Though many of the experiments involve animal subjects, the
emphasis is on what that research tells us about human behavior.
• Chapter 2 reviews the basic research methods used to study learning, in-
cluding the single-subject designs that are unfamiliar to